Full Articles: https://drsantos.org/2025/11/23/exegesis-of-romans-512-21/
Introduction & Exegetical Idea
The paper situates Romans as Paul’s most theologically comprehensive letter, framed by the thesis of Romans 1:16–17, where the δικαιοσύνη θεοῦ (dikaiosynē theou, righteousness of God) is revealed by faith. Romans 1–3 establishes universal condemnation (Gentile, moralist, Jew), while 3:21–5:21 expounds justification by faith. Romans 5:12–21 forms the climactic explanation of imputation and functions as a bridge to Paul’s doctrine of sanctification and the role of law.
Exegetical idea: if sin and death truly entered the world διʼ ἑνὸς ἀνθρώπου (di’ henos anthrōpou, through one man—Adam), then it is theologically coherent that righteousness and life come διʼ ἑνὸς ἀνθρώπου Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ (di’ henos anthrōpou Iēsou Christou, through one man, Jesus Christ).
I. Sin Came into the World Through One Man (5:12a)
Key text: διὰ τοῦτο ὥσπερ διʼ ἑνὸς ἀνθρώπου ἡ ἁμαρτία εἰς τὸν κόσμον εἰσῆλθεν
(dia touto hōsper di’ henos anthrōpou hē hamartia eis ton kosmon eisēlthen)
Paul introduces the section with διὰ τοῦτο (dia touto, therefore/for this reason*), linking 5:12–21 to the preceding discussion (5:1–11). The aorist verb εἰσῆλθεν (eisēlthen, entered) marks sin’s decisive historical entrance into the world through ἑνὸς ἀνθρώπου (henos anthrōpou, one man), identified later as Adam. This establishes Adam’s federal headship over humanity.
II. Death Came to All Men Through One Sin (5:12b)
Key text: καὶ διὰ τῆς ἁμαρτίας ὁ θάνατος
(kai dia tēs hamartias ho thanatos)
The same verb governs this second clause: death (ὁ θάνατος, ho thanatos) entered through sin. Death is portrayed not as a natural phenomenon, but as a penal consequence. Sin is the channel (διὰ τῆς ἁμαρτίας, dia tēs hamartias) through which death enters and begins its reign.
III. All Men Have Sinned (5:12c)
Key text: καὶ οὕτως εἰς πάντας ἀνθρώπους ὁ θάνατος διῆλθεν ἐφʼ ᾧ πάντες ἥμαρτον
(kai houtōs eis pantas anthrōpous ho thanatos diēlthen eph’ hō pantes hēmarton)
Death διῆλθεν (diēlthen, spread) to all humans, because πάντες ἥμαρτον (pantes hēmarton, all sinned). The aorist verb ἥμαρτον points to a single past event rather than a series of individual acts. The paper interprets this as indicating that all sinned in Adam’s one transgression, reflecting federal solidarity rather than mere imitation.
IV. Before Law, Sin Was in the World (5:13a)
Key text: ἄχρι γὰρ νόμου ἁμαρτία ἦν ἐν κόσμῳ
(achri gar nomou hamartia ēn en kosmō)
A parenthetical section begins (vv. 13–17). Even “until law” (ἄχρι νόμου, achri nomou, i.e., prior to the Mosaic law), sin was present in the world. The fall of Genesis 3 inaugurated a sinful condition long before Sinai, and the presence of death demonstrates this reality.
V. Sin Is Not Imputed When There Is No Law (5:13b)
Key text: ἁμαρτία δὲ οὐκ ἐλλογεῖται μὴ ὄντος νόμου
(hamartia de ouk ellogeitai mē ontos nomou)
The verb ἐλλογεῖται (ellogeitai, is put to one’s account) appears here in a legal sense. Where there is no law, sin is not formally charged, though it exists. The Mosaic law does not bring sin into being; rather, it makes sin explicit and juridically accountable.
VI. Death Reigned from Adam Until Moses (5:14a)
Key text: ἀλλὰ ἐβασίλευσεν ὁ θάνατος ἀπὸ Ἀδὰμ μέχρι Μωϋσέως
(alla ebasileusen ho thanatos apo Adam mechri Mōyseōs)
Despite the absence of the Mosaic law, ὁ θάνατος (ho thanatos, death) ἐβασίλευσεν (ebasileusen, reigned) from Adam to Moses. The verb βασιλεύω (basileuō) presents death as a ruling monarch, demonstrating that the root cause of death precedes and transcends Sinai.
VII. Death Reigned Even Over Those Who Did Not Sin Like Adam (5:14b)
Key text: καὶ ἐπὶ τοὺς μὴ ἁμαρτήσαντας ἐπὶ τῷ ὁμοιώματι τῆς παραβάσεως Ἀδάμ
(kai epi tous mē hamartēsantas epi tō homoiōmati tēs parabaseōs Adam)
Death reigned even over those who did not sin “according to the likeness of Adam’s transgression” (παράβασις, parabasis, conscious violation). This includes those who did not knowingly break a specific command, such as infants or pre-law generations. Their death reveals the imputation of Adam’s guilt rather than simple personal imitation.
VIII. Adam Is a Type of Him Who Was to Come (5:14c)
Key text: ὅς ἐστιν τύπος τοῦ μέλλοντος
(hos estin typos tou mellontos)
Adam is described as a τύπος (typos, type, pattern) of the coming One, Christ. Both Adam and Christ stand as representative heads whose single acts affect “the many.” The remainder of the passage expounds this typology through parallelism and contrast.
IX. The Gift Is Not Like the Transgression (5:15a)
Key text: ἀλλʼ οὐχ ὡς τὸ παράπτωμα, οὕτως καὶ τὸ χάρισμα
(all’ ouch hōs to paraptōma, houtōs kai to charisma)
A major contrast is introduced: the free gift (τὸ χάρισμα, to charisma) is “not like” the trespass (τὸ παράπτωμα, to paraptōma). While Adam’s act and Christ’s act are structurally parallel (one act with corporate consequences), their nature and efficacy differ radically.
X. Many Died Because of One Transgression (5:15b)
Key text: εἰ γὰρ τῷ τοῦ ἑνὸς παραπτώματι οἱ πολλοὶ ἀπέθανον
(ei gar tō tou henos paraptōmati hoi polloi apethanon)
Because of the one man’s trespass, οἱ πολλοί (hoi polloi, the many = all humanity) ἀπέθανον (apethanon, died). The focus is on the single act of Adam; that act brought universal death, confirming the reality of corporate ruin.
XI. Grace Abounded to Many Through One Man, Jesus Christ (5:15c)
Key text: πολλῷ μᾶλλον ἡ χάρις τοῦ θεοῦ… ἐπὶ τοὺς πολλοὺς ἐπερίσσευσεν
(pollō mallon hē charis tou theou… epi tous pollous eperisseusen)
The “much more” formula (πολλῷ μᾶλλον, pollō mallon) emphasizes the superiority of Christ’s work. The grace of God and the gift in Ἰησοῦς Χριστός (Iēsous Christos) ἐπερίσσευσεν (eperisseusen, abounded) to the many. Grace not only meets the need created by Adam’s sin but surpasses it.
XII. The Gift Is Not Like What Came Through One’s Sin (5:16a)
Key text: καὶ οὐχ ὡς διʼ ἑνὸς ἁμαρτήσαντος τὸ δώρημα
(kai ouch hōs di’ henos hamartēsantos to dōrēma)
The δώρημα (dōrēma, gift) is again contrasted with what came through the one who sinned (ἁμαρτήσαντος, hamartēsantos). Though both are “through one,” the origin, character, and outcome of the gift differ fundamentally from the result of Adam’s sin.
XIII. The Result of the One Sin Is Condemnation (5:16b)
Key text: τὸ μὲν γὰρ κρίμα ἐξ ἑνὸς εἰς κατάκριμα
(to men gar krima ex henos eis katakrima)
Judgment (τὸ κρίμα, to krima) from one trespass leads εἰς κατάκριμα (eis katakrima, to condemnation). The term κατάκριμα includes not only a guilty verdict but also the execution of the sentence, emphasizing the penal dimension of Adamic guilt.
XIV. The Gift from Many Trespasses Is Justification (5:16c)
Key text: τὸ δὲ χάρισμα ἐκ πολλῶν παραπτωμάτων εἰς δικαίωμα
(to de charisma ek pollōn paraptōmatōn eis dikaiōma)
In contrast, the gift arises ἐκ πολλῶν παραπτωμάτων (ek pollōn paraptōmatōn, from many trespasses) and leads εἰς δικαίωμα (eis dikaiōma), i.e., to a justifying verdict. Many sins become the occasion for a single comprehensive declaration of righteousness in Christ.
XV. Death Reigned Through the Transgression of One (5:17a)
Key text: εἰ γὰρ τῷ τοῦ ἑνὸς παραπτώματι ὁ θάνατος ἐβασίλευσεν διὰ τοῦ ἑνός
(ei gar tō tou henos paraptōmati ho thanatos ebasileusen dia tou henos)
Once more, Paul affirms that through the one man’s trespass death ἐβασίλευσεν (ebasileusen, reigned) διὰ τοῦ ἑνός (dia tou henos, through the one). Death’s dominion is historically tethered to Adam’s act.
XVI. The Gift Will Continue to Abound in Jesus Christ (5:17b)
Key text: πολλῷ μᾶλλον… οἱ τὴν περισσείαν τῆς χάριτος καὶ τῆς δωρεᾶς τῆς δικαιοσύνης λαμβάνοντες ἐν ζωῇ βασιλεύσουσιν διὰ τοῦ ἑνὸς Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ
(pollō mallon… hoi tēn perisseian tēs charitos kai tēs dōreas tēs dikaiosynēs lambanontes en zōē basileusousin dia tou henos Iēsou Christou)
Those who receive τὴν περισσείαν τῆς χάριτος (tēn perisseian tēs charitos, the abundance of grace) and τῆς δωρεᾶς τῆς δικαιοσύνης (tēs dōreas tēs dikaiosynēs, the gift of righteousness) will reign in life (βασιλεύσουσιν ἐν ζωῇ, basileusousin en zōē) through the one, Jesus Christ. The regime of death is replaced by the regime of life for those who receive this gift.
XVII. One Sin → All Men Condemned (5:18a)
Key text: ἄρα οὖν… διʼ ἑνὸς παραπτώματος εἰς πάντας ἀνθρώπους εἰς κατάκριμα
(ara oun… di’ henos paraptōmatos eis pantas anthrōpous eis katakrima)
Paul formally resumes the comparison begun in 5:12. Through διʼ ἑνὸς παραπτώματος (di’ henos paraptōmatos, one trespass), condemnation comes εἰς πάντας ἀνθρώπους (eis pantas anthrōpous, to all men). Adam uniquely embodies the race as its original representative.
XVIII. One Righteous Deed → Justification of Life for All (5:18b)
Key text: οὕτως καὶ διʼ ἑνὸς δικαιώματος εἰς πάντας ἀνθρώπους εἰς δικαίωσιν ζωῆς
(houtōs kai di’ henos dikaiōmatos eis pantas anthrōpous eis dikaiōsin zōēs)
Correspondingly, through διʼ ἑνὸς δικαιώματος (di’ henos dikaiōmatos, one “justifying sentence”), there is δικαίωσις ζωῆς (dikaiōsis zōēs, justification of life) for all men. The provision is universal in scope; its saving effect is applied to those who believe.
XIX. Through One Man’s Disobedience All Were Made Sinners (5:19a)
Key text: διὰ τῆς παρακοῆς τοῦ ἑνὸς ἀνθρώπου ἁμαρτωλοὶ κατεστάθησαν οἱ πολλοί
(dia tēs parakoēs tou henos anthrōpou hamartōloi katestathēsan hoi polloi)
Adam’s sin is characterized as παρακοή (parakoē, disobedience). Through this, “the many” (οἱ πολλοί, hoi polloi) κατεστάθησαν (katestathēsan, were made/constituted) sinners. The verb καθίστημι (kathistēmi) here signifies a change of status: humanity is placed in a state of sin.
XX. Through One Man’s Obedience Many Will Be Made Righteous (5:19b)
Key text: οὕτως καὶ διὰ τῆς ὑπακοῆς τοῦ ἑνός δίκαιοι κατασταθήσονται οἱ πολλοί
(houtōs kai dia tēs hypakoēs tou henos dikaioi katastathēsontai hoi polloi)
By Christ’s ὑπακοή (hypakoē, obedience), “the many” will be made righteous (δίκαιοι κατασταθήσονται, dikaioi katastathēsontai). The same verb in the future passive indicates a new, enduring status. In relation to Adam, the many are sinners; in relation to Christ, the many are righteous—namely, those who believe.
XXI. Law Came and Sin Increased So That Grace Might Abound (5:20a)
Key text: νόμος δὲ παρεισῆλθεν ἵνα πλεονάσῃ τὸ παράπτωμα
(nomos de pareisēlthen hina pleonasē to paraptōma)
The νόμος (nomos, law) “slipped in beside” (παρεισῆλθεν, pareisēlthen), indicating a secondary, temporary role. Its purpose (ἵνα, hina) is that τὸ παράπτωμα (to paraptōma, the trespass) might πλεονάσῃ (pleonasē, increase). Law does not remedy sin; it reveals and multiplies it in clarity.
XXII. Sin Increased, but Grace Abounded More (5:20b)
Key text: οὗ δὲ ἐπλεόνασεν ἡ ἁμαρτία, ὑπερεπερίσσευσεν ἡ χάρις
(hou de epleonasen hē hamartia, hypereperisseusen hē charis)
Where sin ἐπλεόνασεν (epleonasen, increased), grace ὑπερεπερίσσευσεν (hypereperisseusen, abounded exceedingly). The intensive compound verb underscores that grace more than compensates for the proliferation of sin; it overwhelmingly surpasses it.
XXIII. Sin Reigned in Death and Grace Reigns in Righteousness (5:21b)
Key text: ἵνα ὥσπερ ἐβασίλευσεν ἡ ἁμαρτία ἐν τῷ θανάτῳ, οὕτως καὶ ἡ χάρις βασιλεύσῃ διὰ δικαιοσύνης
(hina hōsper ebasileusen hē hamartia en tō thanatō, houtōs kai hē charis basileusē dia dikaiosynēs)
Paul presents the ultimate purpose clause: as sin reigned (ἐβασίλευσεν, ebasileusen) ἐν τῷ θανάτῳ (en tō thanatō, in death), so grace might reign (βασιλεύσῃ, basileusē) διὰ δικαιοσύνης (dia dikaiosynēs, through righteousness). The old regime is characterized by sin’s rule expressed in death; the new regime is grace’s rule expressed through justifying righteousness.
XXIV. Righteousness Reigns to Eternal Life (5:21c)
Key phrase: διὰ δικαιοσύνης εἰς ζωὴν αἰώνιον
(dia dikaiosynēs eis zōēn aiōnion)
Grace reigns through righteousness and leads εἰς ζωὴν αἰώνιον (eis zōēn aiōnion, unto eternal life). Righteousness here denotes God’s justifying action that inaugurates and guarantees the eschatological goal of salvation—eternal life.
XXV. Eternal Life Is Through Jesus Christ (5:21d)
Key phrase: εἰς ζωὴν αἰώνιον διὰ Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ τοῦ κυρίου ἡμῶν
(eis zōēn aiōnion dia Iēsou Christou tou kyriou hēmōn)
The passage culminates with the affirmation that eternal life is διὰ Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ τοῦ κυρίου ἡμῶν (dia Iēsou Christou tou kyriou hēmōn, through Jesus Christ our Lord). As sin and death entered through one man, so righteousness and eternal life come through the last Adam. The entire argument moves from Adamic death to Christ-centered life.
Application (Summary)
The paper concludes that Adam’s willful disobedience plunged all humanity into a state of condemnation and death, while the righteous, atoning work of Christ offers justification and eternal life to all who believe. Recognizing the magnitude of this grace leads naturally into the ethical exhortation of Romans 12:1–2: presenting one’s body as a living sacrifice and pursuing transformation by the renewing of the mind, in order to live out what is “good and acceptable and perfect” in the will of God.
HIstorical & Biblical Studies with Dr. Santos 
Leave a comment