Romans 5:12–21 (NASB95) ¹² Therefore, just as through one man sin entered into the world, and death through sin, and so death spread to all men, because all sinned— ¹³ for until the Law sin was in the world, but sin is not imputed when there is no law. ¹⁴ Nevertheless death reigned from Adam until Moses, even over those who had not sinned in the likeness of the offense of Adam, who is a type of Him who was to come. ¹⁵ But the free gift is not like the transgression. For if by the transgression of the one the many died, much more did the grace of God and the gift by the grace of the one Man, Jesus Christ, abound to the many. ¹⁶ The gift is not like that which came through the one who sinned; for on the one hand the judgment arose from one transgression resulting in condemnation, but on the other hand the free gift arose from many transgressions resulting in justification. ¹⁷ For if by the transgression of the one, death reigned through the one, much more those who receive the abundance of grace and of the gift of righteousness will reign in life through the One, Jesus Christ. ¹⁸ So then as through one transgression there resulted condemnation to all men, even so through one act of righteousness there resulted justification of life to all men. ¹⁹ For as through the one man’s disobedience the many were made sinners, even so through the obedience of the One the many will be made righteous. ²⁰ The Law came in so that the transgression would increase; but where sin increased, grace abounded all the more, ²¹ so that, as sin reigned in death, even so grace would reign through righteousness to eternal life through Jesus Christ our Lord.

Exegetical Outline:

1. Sin came into the world through one man                                                     12a
2. Death came to all men through one sin                                                            12b
3. All men have sinned                                                                                 12c
4. For before law sin was in the world                                                            13a
5. Sin is not imputed when there is no law                                                      13b
6. Death reigned from Adam until Moses                                                            14a
7. Death reigned even over those that did not sin in Adam’s offence            14b
8. Adam is a type of Him who was to come                                                               14c
9. The gift is not like the transgression                                                            15a
10. Many died because of one transgression                                                               15b
11. The grace of God abounded to many through one man Jesus Christ             15c
12. The gift is not like what came through one’s sin                                              16a
13. The result from the one sin is condemnation                                                 16b
14. The gift from many condemnations is justification                                         16c
15. Death reigned through the transgression of one                                                    17a
16. The gift will continue to abound in Jesus Christ                                                     17b
17. The consequence of one sin is all men are condemned                                    18a
18. Thus through one righteous deed acquittal                                              18b
19. Through one man’s disobedience all were made sinners                              19a
20. Through one man’s obedience many will be made righteous                       19b
21. Law came and sin increased so that grace could abound                                         20a
22. Sin increased but grace abounded more                                                                20b
23. Sin reigned in death and grace reigns in righteousness                                  21b
24. Righteousness can reign to eternal life                                                            21c
25. The eternal life is through Jesus Christ                                                            21d

Exegetical Idea:

Did sin and death enter the world through one man?  If sin has entered the world through one man then it is possible for one man to remove sin and death and replace it with righteousness and life.

Introduction:

The book of Romans stands as the single most theologically complete book in the New Testament.  It is the Apostle Paul’s masterpiece and stands as a shining example of first century rhetoric in form, style, and content.  In this book Paul presents a systematic theology of the doctrines of universal condemnation, justification, atonement, sanctification, and restoration of Israel as well as sections on practical theology. 

Everything in the book comes back to Paul’s bold thesis found in 1:16-18, “For I am not ashamed of the gospel, for it is the power of God for salvation to everyone who believes, to the Jew first and also to the Greek. For in it the righteousness of God is revealed from faith to faith; as it is written, “But the righteous man shall live by faith.” (NASB)[1]  Paul brilliantly takes on every potential objection that can be raised against justification by faith with rhetoric and Biblical examples and still manages to bridge his argument to sanctification; which continued to support his previous arguments.

Following Paul’s thesis is three chapters proving universal condemnation.  Paul breaks this argument into three divisions; 1) the heathen (1:18-32); 2) the religious hypocrite that can also be seen as the cultured Greek (2:1-3:8); and 3) the Hebrew (3:9-20).  From there Paul dives right into the doctrine of justification by faith alone (3:21-5:21). 

Paul’s argument for and explanation of justification by faith can be seen in four parts.  The first section describes the origin of righteousness (3:21-31).  The second section gives Biblical examples of righteousness (4:1-25).  The third example describes the benefits of righteousness (5:1-11). And finally, the imputation of righteousness is explained (5:12-21).  This final section, 5:12-21, which this work will provide exegesis on, serves two purposes.  The first is that it provides an apologetic for the corruption of all men through Adam’s one sin and the impartation of righteousness through Jesus Christ.  But the second purpose for this section is that it introduces the purpose of law.  Understanding the purpose of law is important both for justification and sanctification.  The law can be used to point out sin and the need for a savior. 

There have been some that understood justification by faith but turned back to the law for the purpose of sanctification.  There is an alarming trend today as many believers are being led down this same path by modern day Judaizers.  Paul uses 5:12-21 as a bridge to his arguments about law and sanctification.  Chafer agreed and wrote; The intermediate portion, now being considered, is a consummation of that which goes before and a preparation for that which follows.”^[2] 

Paul rounds out the book with an explanation of sanctification (6:1-8:39).  He then turns his attention to describing the future restoration of Israel (9-11).  And finally Paul presents instruction to the believers of the Church of Rome with practical theology of living righteously (12:1-15:13); which is a natural progression from the doctrines of righteousness.

The exegesis of Romans is not without problems.  Schreiner wrote that “Romans 5:12–21 is one of the most difficult and controversial passages to interpret in all of Pauline literature.”^[3]  The truths that are presented in this section of Scripture are often not popular as they present man in his natural state in a very low condition.  It shows man in a much lower condition than Adam was in before the fall.  But, it also exalts the regenerate man to the right view of his new condition.  A follower of Jesus Christ is to place the inspired Word of God as the authority; unconditionally.  Therefore whatever the exegesis and interpretation with a consistent literal grammatical-historical hermeneutic bare: that is what the follower of Jesus must believe.  Before embarking on the exegesis of this watershed passage it would be good to review the words of wisdom given by Chafer regarding the exegesis of Romans 5:12-21.  He wrote,

In further preparation for a right exegesis of Romans 5:12, it is important to observe that the one initial sin of Adam—properly styled the original sin, so far as humanity is concerned—is the main subject under discussion. As before stated, the original sin of Adam is the fontal source from which two widely different lines of influence proceed. The previous thesis has dealt with the transmitted sin nature which is received mediately from generation to generation, which nature is so closely allied to spiritual death. The present objective is to trace the other line of influence arising from Adam’s initial sin, which line is that of imputed sin and is the only reason assigned in the Word of God for the imposition upon the race of physical death. The first line of inference mentioned has to do with corruption, while the second, now in view, has to do with guilt.^[4]

Commentary:

Sin came into the world through one man

This first verse has three divisions with each division containing its own main verb.  Paul begins this division on sin entering the world with the phrase διά τοῦτο ὥσπερ.  Διά τοῦτο is a common phrase in the New Testament, especially in Pauline writing.  It is used 64 times in the New Testament with 22 occurrences in the Pauline Corpus with 5 of those used in Romans alone.  Porter suggests that this phrase is causal^[5] in its New Testament use; in a sense causing to pass through; in this case passing through one man’s sin.  The addition of the conjunction ὥσπερ translated “therefore” indicates an antecedent passage.  Some suggest that the reference is to verse 11 while others see a connection to verses 1-11.  Porter wrote, “In Rom. 5.12, most commentators agree that διὰ τοῦτο refers at least to vv. 9–11, quite possibly to vv. 1–11, and perhaps even further back. Relative pronouns may have no referent.”^[6]  Hodge wrote, “The wherefore (διὰ τοῦτο) is consequently to be taken as illative, or marking an inference from the whole of the previous part of the epistle, and especially from the preceding verses.”^[7]  Morris summarized the debate when he wrote,

This verse begins a new section, linked to the preceding with a Therefore. Immediately we encounter disagreement. Barrett discovers only “a loose relation” with the preceding and Käsemann refers to “the break in thought,” whereas Lenski speaks of “a close connection” and Boylan sees what follows as “an inference from the section, vv. 1–11”. We should take Paul’s Therefore seriously. He is linking this new section to the preceding. It is because of the reconciliation Christ has brought about that the evil Adam introduced into the world has been overcome, and more than overcome.^[8]

This debate is unnecessary, as all would agree that verses 12-21 are at least connected to verse 11.  The previous verse itself connects itself to the preceding verses and texts by the continuous use of conjunctions all the way back to Paul’s thesis in 1:17.  Furthermore, the passage at hand becomes a bridge from Paul’s argument for universal condemnation as he places all men seminally in Adam to all that accept the free gift of justification in Christ Jesus.  As one crosses this bridge from the doctrines of justification it will lead to doctrines of sanctification of the believer.  Schreiner suggests that chapter five is connected to following chapters thematically with the theme being hope.  He wrote,

If my analysis of the structure of chapters 5–8 as a whole is on target, then it is probable that the two sections are joined by the theme of hope. The hope trumpeted in verses 1–11 is firmly based because Christ has overturned the negative consequences of Adam’s sin. The power of grace is stronger than both sin and death, and thus believers can be assured that they will reign in life (v. 17) and that grace will reign and result in eternal life (v. 21). The rule over creation that Adam lost will be restored (cf. 8:18–25), and creation itself will experience transformation. Those in Christ will enjoy sovereignty over creation through the second Adam, Jesus Christ, who succeeded where the first Adam failed.^[9]

The conjunction clause is followed by the genitive clause διʼ ἑνὸς ἀνθρώπου (through one man).  In this clause the object of Paul’s thought is presented as the one man who’s sin he compared the action of Jesus.  Though not mentioned until verse 14 the one man is Adam.  ἡ ἁμαρτία εἰς τὸν κόσμον εἰσῆλθεν (sin entered into the world) contains the subject of the verb and the verb.  The main verb εἰσῆλθεν is the aorist active indicative 3^rd person singular form of εἰσέρχομαι (eisérchomai) meaning “enter, come into, or go in” and is translated “entered.”^[10]  The nominative feminine form of sin ἡ ἁμαρτία accompanied with the article is the subject of the verb.  It is the sin that entered.  It entered the world as seen in the clause εἰς τὸν κόσμον which is an accusative neuter clause or indirect object of the verb.  The thrust here is that sin entered the world by Adam’s sin.

καὶ διὰ τῆς ἁμαρτίας ὁ θάνατος is the final clause of this division.  It is also modifying the verb εἰσῆλθεν rendered entered.”  ὁ θάνατος is in the nominative form and is the subject of the verb in this clause.  τῆς ἁμαρτίας (sin) is the genitive making the sin the conduit which the subject, death, entered the world. 

Death spread to all men through one sin

This division contains a main verb that is found at the end of the clause just as the previous verb was.  This verb is διῆλθεν which is the aorist active indicative 3^rd person singular of διέρχομαι which is translated here as “spread.”  It has the sense of going through or passing through.  The nominative noun ὁ θάνατος or “death” is the subject of the verb with the accusative clause being εἰς πάντας ἀνθρώπους.  This verse shows the connection of all people to that one sin.  As will be illustrated more completely, all are sinners and condemned through this one sin.

The second word [of verse 12], as, is no less important since it indicates the first of a series of contrasts, which contrasts characterize this portion of the Scriptures. The two members of this comparison are justification through One Man over against ruin through one man. The as connects that which has gone before with the idea of sin entering by one man. It may be paraphrased: Wherefore as the case of justification is, being by one man, so the case of ruin is, being by one man. Such, indeed, is the substance of the more detailed argument which follows in the context.

The words, “as by one man sin entered into the world,” imply that sin had already had its manifestation in other spheres and that the one man, Adam, became the avenue or open door by which it entered into the cosmos world. But more is added, since the text goes on to state, “and death by sin.” Though a close relation exists between spiritual death and physical death—they both begin with the one initial sin of the first man and converge alike on each individual of Adam’s race—the reference in verse 12 is to physical death. It is possible that some reference is made before the end of this context is reached to death on so broad a scale that it may include both of its forms; but the meaning of the word in the primary statement is of physical death. The universal character of physical death requires no defense. Thus the Scriptures declare, “It is appointed unto men once to die” (Heb. 9:27), and it is no different message when the Apostle states here, “And so death passed upon [spread through] all men, for that all have sinned.” Since the aorist tense is used in the last clause and thus a single, historical act completed in the past is indicated, the phrase “all have sinned” is better rendered all sinned. The effort of language at this point is to say that each member dies physically because of his own part in Adam’s sin. Since one complete, single, historical act is in view, the words all sinned cannot refer to a nature which results from that act, nor can it refer to personal sins of many individuals. It is not that man became sinful. The assertion is that all sinned at one time and under the same circumstances. In like manner, the penalty—death—is not for pollution, which would indicate spiritual death, but for guilt, or for participation in an act; and that indicates physical death. The statement is clear, the issue being that all had a part in Adam’s initial sin. ^[11]

All men have sinned

The aorist active indicative 3^rd person plural verb ἥμαρτον (from ἁμαρτάνω) is once again found at the end of the clause.  The verb is rendered “sinned.”  It begins with the preposition ἐφʼ followed by the dative relative pronoun ᾧ.  The subject of the verb is πάντες·which is a plural noun meaning “all.”  This is a dependent clause describing the causal nature of the previous sections to all sinning.  All have sinned in the one’s transgression.  “In 1 Corinthians 15:22 this statement appears: ‘For as in Adam all die,’ and this implies the same federal coaction as is asserted in the words all sinned.”^[12] Schreiner explains,

…we should not read a Pelagian interpretation from this, for the ἐφʼ ᾧ phrase explains why all human beings have sinned. As a result of Adam’s sin death entered the world and engulfed all people; all people enter the world alienated from God and spiritually dead by virtue of Adam’s sin. By virtue of entering the world in the state of death (i.e., separated from God), all human beings sin. This understanding of the text confirms the view of scholars who insist that original death is more prominent than “original sin” in this text.  The personal sin of human beings is explained by the sway death holds over us. ^[13]

It should be noted that this section carries differences from the rest of the section.  Most of this passage has a balance produced by the comparison of Adam and his sin to Jesus and His righteous act.  In this verse Paul does not complete his thought and does not return to it until verses 18 and 19.  In some senses verses 13 through 17 are parenthetical to the thoughts of verses 12 and 18 through 19.  Hodge made this same observation and summarized it by writing,

From an inspection of vs. 12, 18, 19, which contain the whole point and substance of the comparison. Verses 13–17 are virtually a parenthesis; and vs. 20, 21, contain two remarks, merely incidental to the discussion. Verses 12, 18, 19, must therefore contain the main idea of the passage. In the 12th, only one side of the comparison is stated; but in vs. 18, 19, it is resumed and carried out: ‘As by the offence of one all are condemned, so by the righteousness of one all are justified.’ This, almost in the words of the apostle, is the simple meaning of vs. 18, 19, and makes the point of the comparison and scope of the passage perfectly clear. It is therefore not only admitted, but frequently and freely asserted, that vs. 12, 18, 19, contain the point and substance of the whole passage, vs. 13–17 being a parenthesis. Yet, in vs. 12, 18, 19, the super abounding of the grace of Christ is not even hinted. Can the main design of a passage be contained in a parenthesis, and not in the passage itself? ^[14]

For before law sin was in the world

Paul begins his parenthetical discussion of verses 13-17 with the phrase “ἄχρι γὰρ νόμου ἁμαρτία ἦν ἐν κόσμῳ” (for until the Law sin was in the world).  ἄχρι which is a genitive proposition meaning until followed by the conjunction γὰρ meaning for and νόμου meaning law.  The entire phrase is “for until law” is a dependent clause “as a conjunction expressing time up to a point,”^[15] which is up to the Mosaic Law being given.  The phrase defines the age that Paul is describing.  He is expressing that even before there was law there was sin in the world.  It was previously written that sin entered the world through the one man’s sin and through that sin death has reigned. 

Sin is not imputed when there is no law

This section introduces the verb ἐλλογεῖται which is translated as “imputed.”  It is a verb that is used only here and in Philemon 18.  It is closely related to λογίζομαι which is translated 5 times in Romans by the AV as imputed.  While λογίζομαι carries the meaning of calculating or reckoning ἐλλογεῖται carries the weight of force behind it of being charged to one’s own account.  The subject of the verb is ἁμαρτία or sin modified by the conjunction δὲ and the negative particle οὐκ.  The conjunction serves to tie the noun to the previous clause giving the meaning that while there was not sin in the world it was not imputed to the accounts of those alive.  This is further described in this section by the phrase μὴ ὄντος νόμου.  A. T. Robertson translates this phrase as, “when there is no law.”^[16]  He went on to explain the meaning in more detail.  He wrote,

Genitive absolute, no law of any kind, he means. There was law before the Mosaic law. But what about infants and idiots in case of death? Do they have responsibility? Surely not. The sinful nature which they inherit is met by Christ’s atoning death and grace. No longer do men speak of “elect infants.”^[17]

Death reigned from Adam until Moses

This section begins with the conjunction ἀλλὰ which is a strong adversative^[18] that is similar to the nevertheless connecting this section to the preceding section.  It serves to connect the verb βασιλεύω (basileuō) rendered here as reigned. This is a common verb that is used 21 times in the New Testament with 10 by Paul.  Paul uses βασιλεύω six times in Romans with five of those occurring in chapter five (vv. 14; 17-2x; 21-2x).  βασιλεύω is found 386 times in the Septuagint with at least twelve Hebrew equivalents.  The primary equivalent is מָלַך (mālak) which is a denominative verb that means “become king or queen, reign.”^[19]

Βασιλεύω is modified by the nominative article and noun ὁ θάνατος (the death).  Θάνατος is followed by two prepositional clauses ἀπὸ Ἀδὰμ and μέχρι Μωϋσέως.  Death was reigning in the period of time from Adam to Moses.  This is true even though there was no law and sin was not imputed because there was no law.

Death reigned even over those that did not sin in Adam’s offence

ἐβασίλευσεν of the previous division is also modified by the clause of this division.  The two divisions are divided by the conjunction καὶ which is translated here even.  Death reigned even over those that had not sinned.  Paul himself added to the Biblical record that death and sin entered through Adam’s failure.  Robertson explained further,

Adam violated an express command of God and Moses gave the law of God clearly. And yet sin and death followed all from Adam on till Moses, showing clearly that the sin of Adam brought terrible consequences upon the race.^[20]

The past tense word sinned is the aorist active participle ἁμαρτήσαντας which is the accusative plural form of ἁμαρτάνω.  ἁμαρτήσαντας is the direct object and is found in the prepositional phrase ἐπὶ τοὺς μὴ ἁμαρτήσαντας.  Sinners are the direct object or receive the action of the verb which in this case is death.  These sinners were born into Adams sin without having to commit that sin themselves.  Schreiner added,

Paul does indeed claim that people die because of sin, but he also insists that they sin because they are dead (i.e., separated from God). All human beings enter the world alienated from God, and as a result of this alienation they sin. It is also true that they will experience eschatological death if they sin.^[21]

Adam is a type of Him who was to come

This third division of verse 14 begins with the nominative singular masculine relative pronoun ὅς which identifies Adam as its antecedent.  Adam is in apposition with the noun τύπος rendered here as type.  Robertson wrote that, “Adam is a type of Christ in holding a relation to those affected by the headship in each case, but the parallel is not precise as Paul shows.”^[22]  Chafer summarized the importance of this who section when he wrote, “The two federal headships—that of Adam and that of Christ—are set side by side in their similarities and dissimilarities. The first Adam wrought the ruin of his race; the Last Adam wrought the eternal salvation and glory of His people.”^[23] He added,

Two exceedingly important truths emerge from the vast array of theological writings regarding that image in which man was created, namely, (a) that fallen man bears the inalienable image of God, and (b) that man is injured by the fall to the extent that only redeeming grace can rescue him. Both of these truths are deeply embedded in the Scriptures regardless of any seeming contradictions they may present. Neither truth may be modified or surrendered.^[24]

The gift is not like the offence

This division begins with a phrase that introduces the comparison of the transgression which introduced death with the grace of God and the gift through Jesus Christ.  The first clause “Ἀλλʼ οὐχ ὡς τὸ παράπτωμα,” which means “but not like the trespass” is followed with “οὕτως καὶ τὸ χάρισμα” meaning “thus also the gift.”  Παράπτωμα and χάρισμα are both nominative nouns.  The phrase οὐχ ὡς is the combination of a negative particle οὐχ and a comparative adverbial conjunction ὡς translated as “not like.”  This division establishes the contrast of the rest of the verse.  Paul will use several comparisons and contrasts to add force to the reality that all are dead in Adam’s original sin but that the grace of God is greater than that failure. 

Many died because of one transgression

The first half of this comparison is that because of Adam’s transgression many died.  The attention is on the action rather than the person in this instance.  The verb is the aorist active indicative 3^rd person plural verb ἀπέθανον which is from the word ἀποθνῄσκω.  Paul has returned to the form of earlier verses where the verb is inserted at the end of the thought.  The genitive article and noun τοῦ ἑνὸς sit between the dative article and noun τῷ and παραπτώματι.  τοῦ ἑνὸς is “the one” that trespassed.  “The one clearly means Adam, but he is not named after verse 14. There is not the slightest doubt that he is constantly in mind, but his name is not used.”^[25]  The subject of the verb is οἱ πολλοὶ rendered here as the many.  This phrase could potentially have a multiple meanings.  Morris explained the proper meaning writing,

The many can mean any of a number of things, such as “the majority” or “a great number”; it takes its meaning from its context. Here it signifies the totality of mankind. This way of putting it forms an effective contrast with the one. The effect of Adam’s sin, then, was disaster. It meant death for everyone.^[26]

The grace of God abounded to many through one man Jesus Christ

The contrast to the death of many in one transgression is found in the grace of God abounding to many through Jesus Christ.  Paul begins this division with the phrase πολλῷ μᾶλλον translated much more a phrase that is used only 10 times in the New Testament.  It is a phrase that adds emphasis to the second half of the contrast similar to an “if then” statement in English.  It is a rhetorical device used for emphasis essentially saying if the first was significant the other is amazing.  Jesus used this device in Matthew 6:30 “when He clothes the grass of the field will He not much more clothe you?”  Paul used this device in Romans 5:10 to demonstrate that justification in Christ’s death even while believers were enemies to God; much more having been justified they can now be saved by His life. 

The gift is not like what came through one’s sin

In the first division of verse 16 Paul introduces another contrast.  This begins a number of contrasts.  In fact this verse, “a fourfold contrast: the gift is set over against “one having sinned”, judgment against the gift, one sin against many trespasses, and condemnation against justification”^[27]  The first contrast is that the gift is not like that which came through the one who sinned.  One of the difficulties of translating verse 16 is that there are no main verbs; therefore they must be supplied in the translation.  This translation moves τὸ δώρημα to the beginning of the phrase as it is in the nominative case and is the subject of the sentence with the verb is being provided. 

The division begins with the conjunction καὶ followed by the negative particle οὐχ and the comparative conjunction ὡς.  Then there is the key genitive prepositional phrase διʼ ἑνὸς ἁμαρτήσαντος.  διʼ ἑνὸς which has been used before; as the phrase through the one is a common theme in Romans 5:12-21.  διʼ ἑνὸς is used 4 times in 3 verses (Rom. 5:12; 16; 18-2x).  The unique element to this phrase is the use of ἁμαρτήσαντος the aorist active participle in the genitive singular masculine form of ἁμαρτάνω.  The aorist participle has the unique property of antecedent action which allows this participle to have a referent which is in this case Adam from verse 14.  Robertson agreed and noted in his grammar, “In Ro. 5:16, διʼ ἑνός ἁμαρτήσαντος, there is a reference to Adam (verse 14).”^[28]  He also added a description of the property associated with some aorist participles.  He wrote,

Antecedent Action.  This is the usual idiom with the circumstantial participle. This is indeed the most common use of the aorist participle. But it must not be forgotten that the aorist part. does not in itself mean antecedent action, either relative or absolute.^[29]…

Judgment came from the one transgression resulting in condemnation

The contrast begins with the observation that judgment came from one transgression and resulted in condemnation.  The subject of the verb arose (which is supplied) is κρίμα which is in the nominative singular neuter form translated as judgment.  Opening the phrase is a nominative singular neuter article followed by two particles.  The first particle is μὲν which is a correlative conjunction followed by a logical explanatory conjunction γὰρ often translated for.  Here this combination has been translated on the one hand.  The logical correlation introduced the subject κρίμα and the implied verb arose and is followed by two short prepositional phrases.  The first is ἐξ ἑνὸς which is a genitive phrase translated from one which indicates origin of judgment.  It is followed with εἰς κατάκριμα and accusative phrase translated to condemnation. 

The gift came from the many transgressions resulting in justification

Judgment came from one transgression and resulted in condemnation. Now Paul presents the second half to the contrast; which is, that gift in justification was the result of many transgressions.  In this division the subject of the verb is χάρισμα translated here as free gift with the verb arose being supplied.  There are two prepositional phrases that follow χάρισμα as there was in the previous division.  And just like the previous division there is a genitive phrase followed by an accusative phrase.  The first prepositional phrase is ἐκ πολλῶν παραπτωμάτων translated from many transgressions demonstrating origin of the nominative χάρισμα.  The final phrase εἰς δικαίωμα is a prepositional phrase in the accusative and is translated in justification.  Justification is the direct object of the action of the verb.  Therefore, as the free gift came out of many transgressions the result was justification.  This speaks to the efficacy of the action of one action, the rise of justification.

Death reigned through the transgression of one

This first division of verse 17 demonstrates that death reigned through the one.  The main verb of the division is ἐβασίλευσεν, the same verb from verse 14 translated reigned.  Previously it was used to illustrate that death reigned from Adam to Moses.  Here the subject of the verb is the nominative θάνατος translated death.  Paul opens this division with the phrase εἰ γὰρ τῷ τοῦ ἑνὸς παραπτώματι.  “Again we have a conditional clause implying that the condition has been fulfilled, “If, as is the case….” The thought of verse 14 is taken up again, that death reigned through what Adam did. Death is supreme—no one escapes its rule.”^[30]  This conditional clause is made up of two conjunctions, the first is conditional εἰ and the second is causal, γὰρ.  This first class conditional clause could be translated since rather than for it by which may help to recognize the causal nature of Paul’s argument that death reigned because of Adam’s transgression death reigned through the one; Adam.  “He is not saying that death reigned over us all because we all sinned; he is saying that death reigned over us all because Adam sinned.”^[31]

The gift will continue to abound in Jesus Christ

Paul transitions from the demonstration of death reigning through Adam to the demonstration life reigning through Jesus Christ with the much more construction.  The attention of this division is on grace and life which come through one other than Adam, Jesus Christ.  The main verb is βασιλεύσουσιν which is the future active indicative 3^rd person plural form of βασιλεύω translated will reign.  The subject of the verb is the nominative plural masculine article οἱ and is translated those who.  There is a long phrase that modifies the subject; τὴν περισσείαν τῆς χάριτος καὶ τῆς δωρεᾶς τῆς δικαιοσύνης λαμβάνοντες ἐν ζωῇ.  Λαμβάνοντες is a nominative participle that means to receive and helps to describe the subject as those who receive… 

The phrase meant to describe those who receive begins with accusative phrase τὴν περισσείαν the abundance.  It is followed by three genitive phrases each being of the abundance.  τῆς χάριτος is of the grace, καὶ τῆς δωρεᾶς and of the gift, τῆς δικαιοσύνης and of the righteousness.  They will reign ἐν ζωῇ, in life.  Paul completes the thought by identifying the origin of the life which is διὰ τοῦ ἑνὸς Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ or through the one, Jesus Christ.

The consequence of one sin is all men are condemned

In verse 18 Paul returns to the thought from verse 12.  He did not complete that thought previously but with the comparison and contrasts done he will finish the thought that death came to all men through one sin.  He returns to this thought with the consequence or “Consequently, a term that stresses the logical sequence.”^[32]  There are no verbs in verse 18 but the construction is direct and simple, contrasting the fall of man in sin with the righteous deed of Jesus.  Each man had universal effect; death to all men in Adam and justification of life being offered to all men in Jesus.  “Adam contained the race in himself in a manner which is not true of any succeeding progenitor in his line.”^[33]

Following the transitional and comparative conjunctions οὖν ὡς Paul stresses that condemnation of all men was in Adam’s transgression.  He began with the prepositional phrase διʼ ἑνὸς παραπτώματος which is a genitive phrase meaning through one trespass or transgression.  This is followed with two accusative prepositional phrases.  The first is εἰς πάντας ἀνθρώπους, to all men; followed by εἰς κατάκριμα, to condemnation.  While the NASB uses the word condemnation in 45 instances only three of those instances are from κατάκριμα; and all of those occur in Romans (5:16; 18; 8:1).  Κατάκριμα carries with it the sense of punishment.  This is explained by the BDAG which said, “In this and the cognates that follow the use of the term ‘condemnation’ does not denote merely a pronouncement of guilt, but the adjudication of punishment.”^[34]  The Analytical Lexicon of the Greek New Testament both confirms the conclusion and adds to it.  It said that κατάκριμα is “a legal technical term for the result of judging, including both the sentence and its execution condemnation, sentence of doom, punishment.^[35]  So then, it is to all men that condemnation with punishment came from Adam’s one transgression.

Thus through one righteous deed acquittal

It is clear that all mankind naturally exist in a state of condemnation through Adam’s original sin.  Now Paul contrasts that doctrine with the justification of life that is offered to all men.  Once again it should be noted that there is no verb in this sentence making it somewhat difficult to translate.  Some have chosen to provide verbs in the translation while others do not.  Following the introductory adverb and conjunction οὕτως καὶ Paul presents the clause διʼ ἑνὸς δικαιώματος, through one righteous act which is perfectly balanced with the through one transgression of the previous division.  The word δικαιώματος is translated here righteous deed but that translation causes problems as it is the same word that is translated justification in verse 16.  Morris explained the trouble when he wrote,

There is a problem with the word translated one act of righteousness. It is the word that is translated “justification” in verse 16, and it normally refers to a pronouncement of some kind, not an action. But most translators and commentators accept a meaning like that of NIV (e.g., NEB, JB, Murray), largely, it would seem, because they see the word as giving an exact antithesis to one trespass, even though in doing so they give the same word two different translations (v. 16 and here). We are faced with a choice between an inexact antithesis and using the word in two different senses in the same passage without explanation (cf. Parry). It seems better to retain consistency both in the way the word is used generally and in the way it is used in verse 16 (so SH, Lenski, and others). “Sentence of justification” or “justificatory sentence” (Godet, Gifford) suits the present context admirably, while the word has the meaning “righteous act” rarely if at all.^[36]

Paul continued to balance this second half of verse 18 with the first as he wrote that through the one act of justification to all men.  He used the prepositional phrase εἰς πάντας ἀνθρώπους which is perfectly balanced with the thought of the previous division.  This thought ends with a second accusative propositional phrase εἰς δικαίωσιν and the genitive ζωῆς meaning to the justification of life. 

Through one man’s disobedience all were made sinners

Paul began this division with two conjunctions, a comparative and a logical explanatory ὥσπερ γὰρ which has been translated for as.  The introductory conjunctions are followed by a genitival phrase διὰ τῆς παρακοῆς τοῦ ἑνὸς ἀνθρώπου.  The preposition διὰ or through is followed by τῆς παρακοῆς which means disobedience.  “This time Adam’s sin is called disobedience, which brings out a salient feature of the wrong he did. His sin was voluntary.”^[37]  The final clause of the prepositional phrase is τοῦ ἑνὸς ἀνθρώπου which has become a familiar clause; this time in the genitive meaning of the one man.  This should be seen as the willful disobedience of the one man.  διὰ carries the sense of being causal and the prepositional phrase is the conduit for ἁμαρτωλοὶ κατεστάθησαν οἱ πολλοί which is translated the many were made sinners.  Regarding the one and the many Robertson wrote,

Here again we have “the one” (του ἑνος [tou henos]) with both Adam and Christ, but “disobedience” (παρακοης [parakoēs], for which see II Cor. 10:6) contrasted with “obedience”…^[38]

The key verb is κατεστάθησαν which is in the aorist active indicative form of καθίστημι.  “The verb were made presents problems. It does not mean that sinless people were compelled to become sinners, but rather that Adam’s sin constituted them as sinners. They were born as members of a race already separated from God.”^[39]  There are two nominative verbs, ἁμαρτωλοὶ and οἱ πολλοί translated as sinner and the many. 

Through one man’s obedience many will be made righteous

Paul explained that it was through one man’s disobedience that all were made sinners.  To follow up and contrast Adam’s disobedience Paul used the obedience of Jesus Christ to explain how righteousness could be offered to the many.  The division begins with οὕτως καὶ translated even so and is followed with a prepositional phrase διὰ τῆς ὑπακοῆς τοῦ ἑνὸς.  The proposition διὰ is used once again to begin the phrase and is translated through.  It is followed by τῆς ὑπακοῆς translated as the obedience and is the genitive of ὑπακοή and has the idea of obedience with a response or answer.  ὑπακοή is found 15 times in the New Testament and is translated in the NASB as obedient in all cases except one which is translated as obey.  The final clause of this phrase is τοῦ ἑνὸς or the one. 

The verb is κατασταθήσονται the future passive indicative 3^rd person plural of καθίστημι which is the same verb from the previous division.  There it was used in the aorist tense and now is used in the future tense.  All men were made sinners, the many will be made δίκαιοι or righteous.  Morris’s treatment of the many is worth quoting.  He wrote,

The many comes last in both clauses, thus standing each time in strong contrast to one. Though the words translated the many are identical in the two places, the meaning is not the same. The first time the many points to the entire human race; all were caught up in the effects of Adam’s sin. But Paul does not hold that all are to be saved (2:12); moreover, “his entire presentation of salvation has emphasized the fact that justification is granted only on the basis of faith” (Harrison). The second time he is referring to the many who believe. All people insofar as they relate to Adam are sinners and insofar as they relate to Christ are righteous.^[40]

Law came and sin increased so that grace could abound

Now the text adds a new element to the thought which is the Mosaic Law.  There are three verbs in this division that will be treated together in this work.  The first thought that Paul asserted was that νόμος δὲ παρεισῆλθεν which is a reference to the Mosaic Law rather than general law of conscience.  The thought was added by the clause νόμος δὲ παρεισῆλθεν which is a simple construction of a nominative verb νόμος or law a logical connective conjunction δὲ and παρεισῆλθεν which is the aorist active indicative 3^rd person singular form of παρεισέρχομαι which means to come in or to slip in.  “The Law’s reign began at Sinai and ended with Christ’s death and resurrection. It is an ed interim dealing “till the seed should come.” It is a temporary economy and should never be treated as the principal divine objective—as too often it has been treated.”^[41]  Morris added,

Law, says Paul, was added, the verb showing that it held no primary place. Its purpose¹⁰¹ was that the trespass might increase. It was not concerned with preventing sin (it was too late for that). Nor was it concerned with preventing sin (it was too weak for that). The law can only condemn (4:15). It was concerned with showing sin for what it is, and it certainly showed magnificently that there was much sin (cf. 3:19–20). Notice the singular; Paul does not say that the “trespasses” increased; it is what sin essentially is that the law magnified.^[42]

After recognizing that law came in he explained the purpose for the law coming in.  Paul used the clause ἵνα πλεονάσῃ which is an adverbial conjunction that often shows purpose and in this case is used with the verb πλεονάσῃ which is the aorist active subjunctive 3^rd person singular form of πλεονάζω meaning to increase and is translated would increase.  The phrase ends with τὸ παράπτωμα translated the transgression. 

…the law was given so that trespasses might be made very clear. How does one know he has sinned? He knows because the law spelled out in detail what was permitted and what was not permitted. The law with 613 commandments revealed sin. ^[43]

Sin increased but grace abounded more

Paul showed that the law came to illuminate sin.  But that is not his main point.  Rather he used the purpose of law as an additional contrast.  But instead of a contrast between sin abounding without law and grace now the contrast is sin as shown by law and grace.  He begins the division with the conjunction οὗ and the logical conjunction δὲ translated but where.  The main verb is ἐπλεόνασεν which is the aorist active indicative 3^rd person singular form of πλεονάζω which means to increase.  ἡ ἁμαρτία is the subject of the verb, thus it is sin that increases. 

But the contrast is that grace abounds more exceedingly than did sin.  The main verb is ὑπερεπερίσσευσεν which is the aorist active indicative 3^rd person singular form of ὑπερπερισσεύω which means to be in great excess and is translated abounded all the more.  “ὑπερεπερισσεύειν is superlative, and not comparative, and περισσεύειν is stronger than πλεονάζειν, as περισσόν is more than πλέον. The fact, therefore, of the triumph of grace over sin, is expressed in the clearest manner.”^[44]  ἡ χάρις, is the subject of the verb ὑπερεπερίσσευσεν making it the grace that abounds more.

Sin reigned in death and grace reigns in righteousness

Most of mankind’s history is dominated by sin and death reigning over everything.  The weight of the curse was an oppressor upon the entire creation.  This division begins with the double conjunction construction similar to what Paul has used previously.  The ἵνα ὥσπερ translated so that introduces the main clause.  “So that introduces a clause of purpose (as in v. 20). The purpose of the superabundant grace was to replace the reign of sin.”^[45] 

That—even so grace might reign (ἱνα—οὑτος και ἡ χαρις βασιλευσῃ [hina—houtos kai hē charis basileusēi]). Final ἱνα [hina] here, the purpose of God and the goal for us through Christ. Lightfoot notes the force of the aorist indicative (ἐβασιλευσεν [ebasileusen], established its throne) and the aorist subjunctive (βασιλευσῃ [basileusēi], might establish its throne), the ingressive aorist both times. “This full rhetorical close has almost the value of a doxology” (Denney).^[46]

The opening conjunctions are followed by the main verb ἐβασίλευσεν which is the same verb used in verse 14 twice in verse 17 and twice in the present verse and is translated reigned.  It is modified by the nominative article and verb ἡ ἁμαρτία which is the subject of the verb making the sentence sin reigned.  The subject is followed by a prepositional phrase ἐν τῷ θανάτῳ.  This phrase uses a dative construction making it in death.  It is also the indirect object of the verb.  One may ask what kind of death is being spoken of here; as it could be physical death or spiritual death.  “The mention of eternal life in the second half of the verse indicates that we should understand death here as spiritual as well as physical.”^[47]

The final phrase of this clause is the contrast to the first half.  While the first half continued to dwell on sin reigning in death the second half will focus on grace reigning.  The clause begins with a conjunction and an emphatic particle οὕτως καὶ.  It is followed with the nominative article and verb ἡ χάρις which means grace.  It modifies the subjunctive verb βασιλεύσῃ which is translated would reign. 

Righteousness can reign to eternal life

The passage is closing with the thought that grace might reign.  There are two prepositional phrases to describe the cause of grace being able to reign.  The first is διὰ δικαιοσύνης εἰς ζωὴν αἰώνιον.  διὰ is followed by the genitive noun δικαιοσύνης which means righteousness.  Hodge wrote, “δικαιοσύνης εἰς ζωὴν αἰώνιον, ‘righteousness which is unto eternal life, because the antithesis is not between death and righteousness, but between death and life: ‘Sin reigns in death, grace reigns unto life.’ That the benefits of redemption shall far outweigh the evils of the fall is here clearly asserted.” ^[48]  Newman explained Paul’s use of the word righteousness by writing,

…the use of righteousness in this verse needs to be made clear. Righteousness is best understood in the sense of “God’s putting men right with himself,” which is understood as the beginning point and eternal life as the final point of the salvation experience. The meaning, then, is that God’s grace rules us by putting us into a right relation with him and by leading us to eternal life (see verse 6:22) through Jesus Christ our Lord. ^[49]

The διὰ is modified by the prepositional clause εἰς ζωὴν αἰώνιον which is translated to eternal life.  It is an accusative construction making eternal life the indirect object of the action of the verb would reign. 

The eternal life is through Jesus Christ

The final clause is that eternal life is through Jesus Christ our Lord.  The preposition διὰ or through is used once again and carries with it the sense of cause.  Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ τοῦ κυρίου uses a genitive construction with the personal pronoun ἡμῶν meaning our.  “It is God’s purpose that not sin but grace should be the ruler, and grace reigns through righteousness.”^[50]  It is fitting that the final phrase of this great passage focus on eternal life through Jesus Christ.  It makes the overall contrast complete from verse 12 of sin and death coming into the world through one man.  Now Paul has shifted his attention to the last Adam; Jesus Christ who has brought in righteousness and eternal life that is offered to all men.

Application:

Paul has given clear instruction as to the nature and efficacy of Adam’s sin which was willful disobedience to God.  Through that one sin, Adam’s sin, all men are born dead in that trespass regardless of personal sin.  The result of being born separate from God in that trespass is condemnation and punishment.  But, if one man’s unrighteous action can bring condemnation to all; much more so that the Son of God’s righteous action as propitiation could impute righteousness to all.  Once the miracle of salvation and eternal life are recognized for what they really are the response should be appropriate; as Paul wrote in Romans 12:1-2, “Therefore I urge you, brethren, by the mercies of God, to present your bodies a living and holy sacrifice, acceptable to God, which is your spiritual service of worship. And do not be conformed to this world, but be transformed by the renewing of your mind, so that you may prove what the will of God is, that which is good and acceptable and perfect.” 

Work Cited:

Arndt, William, Frederick W. Danker and Walter Bauer, A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature, 3rd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000)

Chafer, Lewis Sperry, Systematic Theology (Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel Publications, 1993)

Culver, Robert D., “1199 מָלַך” In , in Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament, ed. R. Laird Harris, Gleason L. Archer, Jr. and Bruce K. Waltke, electronic ed. (Chicago: Moody Press, 1999)

Friberg. Timothy, Barbara Friberg and Neva F. Miller, vol. 4, Analytical Lexicon of the Greek New Testament, Baker’s Greek New Testament library (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker Books, 2000)

Fruchtenbaum, Arnold G., Israelology : The Missing Link in Systematic Theology, Rev. ed. (Tustin, Calif.: Ariel Ministries, 1994)

Gesenius, Wilhelm and Samuel Prideaux Tregelles, Gesenius’ Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon to the Old Testament Scriptures (Bellingham, WA: Logos Research Systems, Inc, 2003)

Hodge, Charles, A Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans, New Edition (Bellingham, WA: Logos Research Systems, Inc., 2009)

Holmes, Michael William, The Apostolic Fathers : Greek Texts and English Translations, Updated ed. (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker Books, 1999)

Kettel, Gerhard, Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, ed. Gerhard Kittel, Geoffrey W. Bromiley and Gerhard Friedrich, electronic ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1964-)

Kittel, Gerhard, Gerhard Friedrich and Geoffrey William Bromiley, Theological Dictionary of the New Testament (Grand Rapids, MI: W.B. Eerdmans, 1995)

Logos Bible Software, Naḥal Ḥever Greek Minor Prophets, Reconstruction (Bellingham, WA: Logos Bible Software, 2010)

Louw, Johannes P. and Eugene Albert Nida, vol. 1, Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament : Based on Semantic Domains, electronic ed. of the 2nd edition. (New York: United Bible societies, 1996)

Morris, Leon, The Epistle to the Romans (Grand Rapids, Mich.; Leicester, England: W.B. Eerdmans; Inter-Varsity Press, 1988)

Mounce, William D., Mounce’s Complete Expository Dictionary of Old & New Testament Words (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2006)

Newman, Barclay Moon and Eugene Albert Nida, A Handbook on Paul’s Letter to the Romans, UBS handbook series; Helps for translators (New York: United Bible Societies, 1994)

Porter, Stanley E., Idioms of the Greek New Testament (Sheffield: JSOT, 1999)

Robertson, A.T., A Grammar of the Greek New Testament in the Light of Historical Research (Logos, 1919; 2006)

_____________ Word Pictures in the New Testament (Oak Harbor: Logos Research Systems, 1997)

Thomas R. Schreiner, vol. 6, Romans, Baker exegetical commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker Books, 1998)

Strong, James, S.T.D., LL.D., vol. 2, A Concise Dictionary of the Words in the Greek Testament and The Hebrew Bible (Bellingham, WA: Logos Research Systems, Inc., 2009)

_____________, The Exhaustive Concordance of the Bible : Showing Every Word of the Text of the Common English Version of the Canonical Books, and Every Occurrence of Each Word in Regular Order., electronic ed. (Ontario: Woodside Bible Fellowship., 1996)

Swanson, James, Dictionary of Biblical Languages With Semantic Domains : Hebrew (Old Testament), electronic ed. (Oak Harbor: Logos Research Systems, Inc., 1997)

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[1] All Scripture will be quoted from the New American Standard 1995 unless otherwise noted.

^[2] Lewis Sperry Chafer, vol. 2, Systematic Theology (Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel Publications, 1993), 299.

^[3] Thomas R. Schreiner, vol. 6, Romans, Baker exegetical commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker Books, 1998), 267.

^[4] Lewis Sperry Chafer, vol. 2, Systematic Theology (Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel Publications, 1993), 297-98.

^[5] Stanley E. Porter, Idioms of the Greek New Testament (Sheffield: JSOT, 1999), 148.  The preposition διά may be related to the word δύο, ‘two’, and perhaps had the original meaning of ‘between’ (fig. 7). The sense captured by the translation ‘through’ perhaps originated in the idea of moving between two objects, or passing through between them. The causal sense seems to have been a further metaphorical extension, in that the conveyance through implies the cause of passing through, or the means by which passage is obtained.

^[6] Stanley E. Porter, Idioms of the Greek New Testament (Sheffield: JSOT, 1999), 128-29.

^[7] Charles Hodge, A Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans, New Edition (Bellingham, WA: Logos Research Systems, Inc., 2009), 223.

^[8] Leon Morris, The Epistle to the Romans (Grand Rapids, Mich.; Leicester, England: W.B. Eerdmans; Inter-Varsity Press, 1988), 228.

^[9] Thomas R. Schreiner, vol. 6, Romans, Baker exegetical commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker Books, 1998), 271.

^[10] William Arndt, Frederick W. Danker and Walter Bauer, A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature, 3rd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), 293-94.

^[11] Lewis Sperry Chafer, vol. 2, Systematic Theology (Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel Publications, 1993), 300-01.

^[12] Lewis Sperry Chafer, vol. 2, Systematic Theology (Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel Publications, 1993), 303.

^[13] Thomas R. Schreiner, vol. 6, Romans, Baker exegetical commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker Books, 1998), 275-77.

^[14] Charles Hodge, A Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans, New Edition (Bellingham, WA: Logos Research Systems, Inc., 2009), 222-223.

^[15] Timothy Friberg, Barbara Friberg and Neva F. Miller, vol. 4, Analytical Lexicon of the Greek New Testament, Baker’s Greek New Testament library (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker Books, 2000), 85.

^[16] A.T. Robertson, Word Pictures in the New Testament (Oak Harbor: Logos Research Systems, 1997), Ro 5:13.

^[17] A.T. Robertson, Word Pictures in the New Testament (Oak Harbor: Logos Research Systems, 1997), Ro 5:13.

^[18] Leon Morris, The Epistle to the Romans (Grand Rapids, Mich.; Leicester, England: W.B. Eerdmans; Inter-Varsity Press, 1988), 233.

^[19] Robert D. Culver, “1199 מָלַך” In , in Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament, ed. R. Laird Harris, Gleason L. Archer, Jr. and Bruce K. Waltke, electronic ed. (Chicago: Moody Press, 1999), 507.

^[20] A.T. Robertson, Word Pictures in the New Testament (Oak Harbor: Logos Research Systems, 1997), Ro 5:14.

^[21] Thomas R. Schreiner, vol. 6, Romans, Baker exegetical commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker Books, 1998), 277.

^[22] A.T. Robertson, Word Pictures in the New Testament (Oak Harbor: Logos Research Systems, 1997), Ro 5:14.

^[23] Lewis Sperry Chafer, vol. 2, Systematic Theology (Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel Publications, 1993), 299.

^[24] Lewis Sperry Chafer, vol. 2, Systematic Theology (Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel Publications, 1993), 169.

^[25] Leon Morris, The Epistle to the Romans (Grand Rapids, Mich.; Leicester, England: W.B. Eerdmans; Inter-Varsity Press, 1988), 235.

^[26] Leon Morris, The Epistle to the Romans (Grand Rapids, Mich.; Leicester, England: W.B. Eerdmans; Inter-Varsity Press, 1988), 235.

^[27] Leon Morris, The Epistle to the Romans (Grand Rapids, Mich.; Leicester, England: W.B. Eerdmans; Inter-Varsity Press, 1988), 236.

^[28] A.T. Robertson, A Grammar of the Greek New Testament in the Light of Historical Research (Logos, 1919; 2006), 860.

^[29] A.T. Robertson, A Grammar of the Greek New Testament in the Light of Historical Research (Logos, 1919; 2006), 860.

^[30] Leon Morris, The Epistle to the Romans (Grand Rapids, Mich.; Leicester, England: W.B. Eerdmans; Inter-Varsity Press, 1988), 236.

^[31] Leon Morris, The Epistle to the Romans (Grand Rapids, Mich.; Leicester, England: W.B. Eerdmans; Inter-Varsity Press, 1988), 237.

^[32] Leon Morris, The Epistle to the Romans (Grand Rapids, Mich.; Leicester, England: W.B. Eerdmans; Inter-Varsity Press, 1988), 238.

^[33] Lewis Sperry Chafer, vol. 2, Systematic Theology (Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel Publications, 1993), 302.

^[34] William Arndt, Frederick W. Danker and Walter Bauer, A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature, 3rd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), 518.

^[35] Timothy Friberg, Barbara Friberg and Neva F. Miller, vol. 4, Analytical Lexicon of the Greek New Testament, Baker’s Greek New Testament library (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker Books, 2000), 218.

^[36] Leon Morris, The Epistle to the Romans (Grand Rapids, Mich.; Leicester, England: W.B. Eerdmans; Inter-Varsity Press, 1988), 239.

^[37] Leon Morris, The Epistle to the Romans (Grand Rapids, Mich.; Leicester, England: W.B. Eerdmans; Inter-Varsity Press, 1988), 240.

^[38] A.T. Robertson, Word Pictures in the New Testament (Oak Harbor: Logos Research Systems, 1997), Ro 5:19.

^[39] Leon Morris, The Epistle to the Romans (Grand Rapids, Mich.; Leicester, England: W.B. Eerdmans; Inter-Varsity Press, 1988), 240.

^[40] Leon Morris, The Epistle to the Romans (Grand Rapids, Mich.; Leicester, England: W.B. Eerdmans; Inter-Varsity Press, 1988), 240.

^[41] Lewis Sperry Chafer, vol. 2, Systematic Theology (Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel Publications, 1993), 307.

^[42] Leon Morris, The Epistle to the Romans (Grand Rapids, Mich.; Leicester, England: W.B. Eerdmans; Inter-Varsity Press, 1988), 241.

^[43] Arnold G. Fruchtenbaum, Israelology : The Missing Link in Systematic Theology, Rev. ed. (Tustin, Calif.: Ariel Ministries, 1994), 592.

^[44] Charles Hodge, A Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans, New Edition (Bellingham, WA: Logos Research Systems, Inc., 2009), 278.

^[45] Leon Morris, The Epistle to the Romans (Grand Rapids, Mich.; Leicester, England: W.B. Eerdmans; Inter-Varsity Press, 1988), 242.

^[46] A.T. Robertson, Word Pictures in the New Testament (Oak Harbor: Logos Research Systems, 1997), Ro 5:21.

^[47] Leon Morris, The Epistle to the Romans (Grand Rapids, Mich.; Leicester, England: W.B. Eerdmans; Inter-Varsity Press, 1988), 242.

^[48] Charles Hodge, A Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans, New Edition (Bellingham, WA: Logos Research Systems, Inc., 2009), 278-79.

^[49] Barclay Moon Newman and Eugene Albert Nida, A Handbook on Paul’s Letter to the Romans, UBS handbook series; Helps for translators (New York: United Bible Societies, 1994), 110.

^[50] Leon Morris, The Epistle to the Romans (Grand Rapids, Mich.; Leicester, England: W.B. Eerdmans; Inter-Varsity Press, 1988), 242.