Bibliography

Collins, Steven, and Joseph M. Holden. The Harvest Handbook of Bible Lands: A Panoramic Survey of the History; Geography; and Culture of the Scriptures. Eugene: Harvest House Publishing, 2019.

Graves, David E. Biblical Archaeology: An Introduction with Recent Discoveries that Support the Reliability of the Bible. New Brunswick: 2014.

Joukowsky, M. A Complete Manual of Field Archaeology: Tools and Techniques of Field Work for Archaeologists. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1980.

Luraghi, Nino. “Author and Audience in Thucydides’ “Archaeology”. Some Reflections.” Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 100 (2000): 227-239.

Archaeology is the study of ancient things. The term itself is made up of two Greek words, arche (ἀρχή) which can mean first or ancient things, and logos (λόγος) meaning words, teaching or study. Archaeology is then the study of ancient things which was used by the Greek historian Thucydides. This ancient author notes the study of past people even in his own time when a gravesite was discovered containing material different than their own. Modern archaeology begins in the late eighteenth century, with interest artifacts, treasures, and relics from the classical world. These archaeologists were primarily treasure hunters, with this model of study lasting decades. October 22, 1738, Roque Joaquín Alcubierre opened a new chapter in archaeology when we began exploring Pompeii, as a military man, Alcubierre decided to organize the collection of artifacts by detailing the provenance of the treasures that were uncovered. This at least opened the door to keeping records on later archaeological excavations and recording the provenance of relics.

One of archaeology’s earliest important figures is Heinrich Schliemann (1822-1890) who is credited with finding the city of Troy. Schliemann found this site with the information provided by Frank Calvert. The key find was the “treasure of King Priam.” In the case of these finds they were not what Schliemann thought they were as they should have dated to c. 1200 BC but many found them to be from 1000 years earlier. Later,

Places like Pompeii caught the interest in the public, especially well-off British society who had the means to experience a grand tour of the classical world. This group also found interest in seeing the Holy Lands and owning a relic from the time and land of the Bible. As western thought was developing there was a renewed interest in classical and biblical languages. This new interest was coincided with Napoleon taking troops to Egypt along with an entourage of scholars who recorded Egyptian monuments and discovering the Rosetta Stone. The discovery of the Rosetta Stone in 1799 opened the doors to mysteries of the ancient world while offering hope of unraveling some of those mysteries. Christian had many reasons to find excitement for the hunt for the ancient world of the Bible. Some say a change to demonstrate the authenticity of Scripture to newly emerging critics and to have a closer connection to that lost world.

Napoleon’s scholars used an approach to the study of the past that was innovative for that day. They made drawings of their discoveries and kept detailed records of their activities and finds. The Rosetta Stone expanded European interest beyond just the classical world of Greece and Rome. Spurring further interest in visiting the Ancient Near East, especially Egypt was the use of the Rosetta Stone to decipher hieroglyphs which was accompanied by Jean-François Champollion in 1822. After many years of studying the Rosetta Stone and other examples of ancient Egyptian writing, Jean-François Champollion cracked the code to hieroglyphs. Thomas Young (1773–1829), an English physicist, added to the world of Champollion as he was one of the first to show that some of the hieroglyphs on the Rosetta Stone wrote the sounds of a royal name, that of Ptolemy. Another key scholar is Sir Austen Henry Layard (1817-1894) a British archaeologist that focused on Mesopotamia, he found many artifacts that were sent back to Britain. Layard, along with Paul-Emile Botta (1802-1870) sent many articles to Europe that were links to the world of the patriarchs.

Sir Flinders Petrie is a scholar that holds an important position in the development of biblical archaeology. British archaeologist: begins the era of true biblical archaeology. He explored many areas of Egypt and the Levant. He is one of the first to notice stratigraphy. This becomes a key element of archaeological dating. He developed the idea of a Tell or mound as an archaeological site. He logically thought that the deeper a layer the earlier the material must represent. He noticed that the pottery that was deep looks different than the pottery closer to the surface. He develops a typology that came to be known as ceramic typology based on layers and the pottery in a layer. He drew timelines based on similar pottery between pottery found in Egyptian tombs to get a sequence. This begins the idea of sequencing between Pharaohs and people and events of the Bible. Petrie’s work led to many principles of biblical archaeology. The first is stratigraphy, as noted. He is considered by some to be the father of stratigraphic analysis. Ceramic typology is a critical element to Ancient Near East archaeology.

Ceramic typology is a step that helps make archaeology more scientific. One reason for this is that ceramics are predictable and repeatable across locations. Ceramics also have a predictability of changes over time. Ceramics are identifiable and assemblages can be used to demonstrate a connection between one site and another. Eventually this leads to a measurable and repeatable discipline. Key is that pottery was found in most sites even when other material was not available. Petrie notes a similarity of some types of ceramics across a large region. He considered the means by which these types were spread across a region so rapidly. This allowed specific levels across a large area to have similar technology at the same time. He thought of the idea of constant migration as populations change by climate change or natural demographic changes. This becomes a mechanism for having a chronological sequence. This helps the study of the Ancient Near East define periods in the chronological sequence.

A key event for pottery technology in the past was the invention of the “fast wheel.” The invention of the fast wheel is an identifiable change in technology of pottery which provides a chronological anchor point. The fast wheel came into used in c. 2100-2000 BC. It is a fast turning platform that advanced technology of pottery production. Collins argues that Mesopotamians created the fast wheel in the North and not the southern Levant or Egypt. (EB3 Central Anatolia making distinctive black/red slip ware. The technology seems to have been translated quickly to Galilee as seen at Beit Yara / Kerak. https://ancientneareast.tripod.com/Khirbet_Kerak.html) Before the fast wheel all pottery was made by hand which was a labor-intensive process with little replication. The fast wheel increased productivity with a repeatable product.

Petrie’s ideas get adopted by people like WF Albright and then become primary methods of biblical archaeology. William F. Albright (1891–1971) was a key figure in biblical archaeology beginning in the 1920s. He was born into a Methodist missionary family. He earned a PhD in Semitic languages from Johns Hopkins University.

Albright had a comprehensive knowledge of many aspects of archaeology. He had a broad knowledge which included stratigraphy, methodology, lithics, ceramics, linguistics, philology, original languages. Thus, it makes sense than many view him as the father of biblical archaeology. As the dean of Palestinian archaeology, he instructed many of the top scholars including, Bright, Garstang, Kenyon, GE Wright, Joseph Free, Dever, and Kenneth Kitchen. Albright accepted the documentary theory and made it acceptable to conservative Christian scholars. Overall, he believed in the historicity of the Biblical narratives. Among this many awards and honorary degrees, Albright was given Israel’s highest honor, the title “Nobleman of Jerusalem.” He stands as a giant in the field of biblical archaeology.

One prominent scholar from the “Albright School” is Kathleen Mary Kenyon. Kenyon, along with Mortimer Wheeler, is credited with developing a grid system for archaeology known as the Wheeler-Kenyon method. She studied under Wheeler at a Roman site in Britain. She was director of the British School of Archaeology from 1951-1962. While she ad several important excavations, the excavation of Jericho (1952-1958) is one of the best known. A key reason this site is important is that she argued that Joshua could not have gone to Jericho, as there was not inhabited city during the time she assigned to Joshua. This excavation followed the work of John Garstang who previously excavated in the 1920s. Garstang thought he’d found Joshua’s Jericho in late bronze age (1450-1440). Kenyon thought Garstang’s excavation was from the middle bronze (c. 1550 BC) and argued there was no LB except for a small building. She held to a 13th century exodus under Ramses the Great (if there was an exodus), placing the Exodus and conquest in a time period when there was not Jericho for Joshua to interact with. She shifted Garstang from the late bronze to the middle bronze age. Kenyon’s ideas shifted the concept of Jericho from LBA and brought about doubts about the historicity of the bible for some.

Joseph A. Callaway (1920–1988) is a sad account of biblical archaeology. Callaway was a professor of Old Testament who set out to discover the Biblical city AI. Callaway was unable to demonstrate any material from the time assigned to Joshua. The city he found was from the Early Bronze Age (c. 2500 BC) which was too early for Joshua. This led Callaway to question the historicity of the Old Testament.

Also from the Albright school, William Dever has been from the University of Arizona. He is one of the key scholars that has carried on after Albright. Dever is one of the archaeologists that has not totally give up on the bible though he does reject historicity of the Torah (like many other scholars such as Israel Finkelstein). Dever was able to add technological advancement to the study of the past. He started to test for pollen, residue in vessels, bone analysis, signs of tool manufacturing and metallurgy, climatological analysis, geology. All of these are key advancements in biblical archaeology.

Additional Summaries

  Heinrich Schliemann (1822–1890): Though primarily known for his excavations at Troy, Schliemann also made important contributions to biblical archaeology. His work at the site of Hissarlik in Turkey provided early evidence of a historical basis for Homeric epics, which influenced the study of biblical history by demonstrating the potential for historical truth in ancient texts.

  Charles Warren (1840–1927): An English engineer and archaeologist, Warren conducted extensive surveys and excavations in Jerusalem in the 1860s. His work uncovered parts of the city walls and the Warren’s Shaft, providing critical evidence of the city’s layout during the time of King David.

  William Foxwell Albright (1891–1971): Often considered one of the leading figures in biblical archaeology, Albright’s work in the early 20th century helped establish the field as a rigorous academic discipline. His excavations in sites like Tell Beit Mirsim and his work on the chronology of ancient Palestine provided crucial insights into the historical context of the Bible.

  Sir Flinders Petrie (1853–1942): Known for his pioneering work in the method of stratigraphic excavation, Petrie made significant contributions to the study of ancient Egypt. His work at sites such as Tell el-Hesi and Lachish in the Near East helped establish a chronological framework for the region, which was essential for understanding biblical narratives.

  Edward Robinson (1794–1863): An American biblical scholar and geographer, Robinson conducted extensive surveys in Palestine and produced important work on the geography of the Bible. His detailed descriptions of biblical locations provided a foundation for later archaeological work.

The earliest archaeological finds in Egypt date back to the early 19th century and include several significant discoveries that laid the foundation for the field of Egyptology. Here are some of the key early finds:

1. Rosetta Stone (1799): Discovered by French soldiers near the town of Rosetta (Rashid) during Napoleon’s Egyptian campaign, the Rosetta Stone is one of the most famous archaeological finds. It features a decree issued by King Ptolemy V in three scripts: Greek, Demotic, and hieroglyphic. The stone was crucial for deciphering Egyptian hieroglyphs, thanks to Jean-François Champollion’s work in the early 1820s.
2. The Memphite Tombs (Early 19th century): Early excavations around Memphis (near modern-day Mit Rahina) revealed several important tombs, including those of high-ranking officials from the Old Kingdom. These tombs provided valuable insights into ancient Egyptian burial practices and art.
3. The Tomb of Seti I (1817): Discovered by Giovanni Battista Caviglia and later explored by the famous British archaeologist Sir Belzoni, the tomb of Seti I in the Valley of the Kings is one of the most well-preserved and richly decorated tombs from the New Kingdom period. Its extensive and detailed wall paintings provided significant information about Egyptian funerary beliefs and art.
4. The Temple of Karnak (Early 19th century): Systematic exploration of the Temple of Karnak in Luxor began in the early 19th century. This vast complex of temples and chapels dedicated to the god Amun was extensively studied, revealing much about ancient Egyptian religious practices and architectural achievements.
5. The Temple of Abu Simbel (1813): Although the site of Abu Simbel was known earlier, it was formally recorded and documented in the early 19th century. The temples, carved out of a mountainside by Ramses II, were recognized for their grandeur and later became a key site for understanding the art and architecture of the New Kingdom.

The earliest archaeological finds in Mesopotamia date back to the 19th and early 20th centuries and have been critical in understanding the ancient civilizations of this region. Here are some key early discoveries:

1. The Ruins of Nineveh (1840s–1850s): Excavations at Nineveh, the capital of the Assyrian Empire, were conducted by Austen Henry Layard and Hormuzd Rassam. These excavations uncovered the ruins of the grand palace of King Sennacherib, as well as important artifacts like the library of Ashurbanipal, which included thousands of clay tablets with cuneiform inscriptions. These finds provided significant information about Assyrian history, literature, and administration.
2. The Code of Hammurabi (1901): Discovered by French archaeologist Jean-Vincent Scheil at Susa, Iran, this stele contains one of the earliest and most complete written legal codes from ancient Mesopotamia. The Code of Hammurabi, dating back to around 1754 BCE, offers insight into the legal and social practices of Babylonian society.
3. The Royal Tombs of Ur (1920s–1930s): Excavations led by Sir Leonard Woolley at the site of Ur, a major Sumerian city-state, revealed a series of spectacular royal tombs dating back to the Early Dynastic III period (circa 2600–2500 BCE). These tombs, including the famous “Great Death Pit,” contained an array of artifacts, such as jewelry, weapons, and musical instruments, which provided valuable information about Sumerian culture and burial practices.
4. The Ziggurat of Ur (1920s–1930s): Woolley’s excavations also uncovered the ziggurat at Ur, a massive stepped pyramid dedicated to the moon god Nanna. This structure was one of the best-preserved examples of Mesopotamian architecture and helped scholars understand the significance of ziggurats in religious and administrative contexts.
5. The Tell el-Amarna Tablets (1887): Found in the Egyptian city of Amarna, these tablets are diplomatic correspondences written in cuneiform between the Egyptian pharaoh Akhenaten and various rulers of the Near East, including those from Mesopotamia. They provide valuable insights into the political and diplomatic relations of the period.